Chapter Notes
Cover photo: Vyacheslav Argenberg, (CC BY 4.0); Steven J. Plunkett (CC BY-SA 2.5).
SFX courtesy of www.epidemicsound.com.
Chapter 1
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Names: Here is a video about the reconstructed pronunciation of the names of gods in Old Norse by Jackson Crawford.
Songs and poems:
Dog sits by the fireside
Old crow now to him does fly
Have you food for me, dog?
Have you food for me?
Fly away, crow, from this hall
You shall have no food at all
Go seek past the garden wall
Ask no food from me.
This is original. No one wrote down any folk lyrics from this era, so we can only imagine.
A life may ebb
A life may end
And soon even friends forget
But men who are known
By mighty deeds
Pass on but never perish
This is meant to approximate the Norse pattern of ljóðaháttr, which was often used for gnomic (wisdom) poetry.
A hearty oar-horse
heaves on waves!
Sea-spray surrounds,
surging with might.
Twelve vulture-friends,
valiant in victory,
Bring home glory
and bright battle-gold!
Intended to approximate fornyrðislag meter.
Chapter 2
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Runes: It's really hard to say how literate the Old Norse were. They didn't write anything lengthy until the 1200s or so, but there are many examples of people carving short messages on things, including gravestones, personal possessions, and graffiti. Whether literacy was widespread or limited to the upper classes is unknown, but there are many gravestones written by and about people who do not have titles of any kind. It would seem that many ordinary people could write.
The Hidden Place: The Norse word "Hel" comes from the root for "hidden" (as does the word "helmet" and huldufólk, the elves).
The prayer:
Guard this family, Mother Freyja,
Keep them whole and healthy.
To the baby, blessings bring ye
Mother of the mighty
Mother of the many
Give the babe your blessing
This is original; I tried to write it in galdralag, the meter (probably) used for incantations.
Chapter 3
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Ásbjorn/"god-bear": Germanic names, including those from Old Norse, are often formed from two words. See this video by Jackson Crawford.
Chapter 4
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Rituals: There are detailed accounts of how kings and large communities made sacrifices, but not of ordinary families. It would be impossible for common farmer to sacrifice a horse or ox at regular points of the year or whenever intercession was needed. Two big trends seem to be throwing things in ponds and flicking blood on statues. Since it is ritual and symbolism that is important, the version shown here seems plausible to me. See link.
The Germanic lyre: Here are some videos by Corwen Broch, Renato Di Prinzio, and Dark Bardess, which give an idea of the versatility of this instrument.
Auvar's song: The story is the same as that of Atlakviða, the story of Atli (Atilla the Hun) and the Burgundian king Gunnar.
Chapter 5
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
The story of Rig: This is a retelling of the Rígsþula.
Chapter 6
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Eadyth's song
Mīn lufestre is heonan gangen
Sing nihtegale, sing tō mē
Ānimeþ hīe forþƿeġ ferlen
Sing, nihtegale, sing and ƿēp
Mīn lufestre hæfþ feaxnesse gyldne
Sing nihtegale, sing tō mē
Hire lippan sindon rōsan fæġra
Sing, nihtegale, sing and ƿēp
My love has gone away
Sing, nightingale, sing to me
A far journey takes her
Sing, nightingale, sing and weep.
My love has hair of gold
Sing, nightingale, sing to me
Her lips are roses fair
Sing, nightingale, sing and weep.
Chapter 7
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
For more on the historical worship of Norse gods, see this video by Jackson Crawford.
Vulund the Smith: The story of Vulund (Vǫlundr) and his revenge on king Nithuth (Níðuðr) is shared by many Germanic cultures. It shows up in English as the story of Wayland (Wēland).
Chapter 8
Intro/Outro music: "I Dreamed a Dream", by Dark Bardess.
Trondheim: Þróndheimr. The modern city of Trondheim didn't exist, but the region did.
Chapter 9
Danish: Not modern Danish, of course. They spoke what we would call Old Norse, but of course it wasn't "old" to them.
Love and marriage in medieval Scandinavia: The internet is full of assertions about "Viking" courtship and wedding customs, but remember that any specific example, even if it is attested to in the historical record, might be true only for that specific Scandinavian culture, time period, and social class. Here is some excellent research by the Viking Answer Lady. One comment of Dr. Crawford's stuck with me, too: in sagas where a woman is forced to marry a man she doesn't like, the result is always disastrous. It can be intuited, then, that although a woman's opinion might not be the sole criterion, it was recognized as an important consideration.
Chapter 10
Bragi’s story: The story of Sigurth (Sigurðr) that Bragi tells here is the same version as in the Völsunga saga. Cool mythological side-note: after killing Fáfnir, Sigurth cuts out the dragon’s heart and cooks it. He touches it and burns his finger, and when he puts his finger into his mouth he finds he can understand the birds, who tell him that Regin is planning to kill him. Compare that to the Irish story of Fionn mac Cumhaill, who burns his thumb on the Salmon of Wisdom while it is cooking, puts his thumb in his mouth, and gains all wisdom.
Drengr: See this video from Jackson Crawford on the Old Norse concept of “drengr”.
Chapter 11
Eadyth’s poem: The poet Cædmon (pronounced "Cadmon") wrote many poems in his life, although only one survives today. The poem that Eadyth recites to Gunnhild is meant to be one of his. Cædmon died only a few generations before the book is set, and I imagine that many monks in Northumbria would have learned and recited Cædmon’s poems.
Heofones cyning, Crist ælmihtiġ,
Bohte mið blōde geblētsode āhreddinge.
On hāliġre ƿynrōde ġeƿundod āhāngen.
His þroƿing us bearg, bealudæde fȳsde.
Heaven’s king, Christ almighty,
Bought with blood blessed salvation.
On the holy cross wounded (he) hung.
His suffering saved us, (it) banished sin.
Here is a wonderful rendition of “Cædmon’s Hymn” by Stef Conner and Hanna Marti: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goqFLy8NJGk
Placenames: Heretu is modern Hartlepool. Conceastre is modern Chester-le-Street. The abbey at Heretu was a double monastery with both monks and nuns under the rule of an abbess, and it had a village near it. It was abandoned sometime around 800 AD, but there is no direct evidence of an attack.
Chapter 12 notes:
Gunnhild’s poem:
Fearing nothing, freedom fills me!
Salt-spray sends the seafoam high.
Toward the future, forward-facing,
Wandering the world-serpent’s waves!
This is meant to approximate the Norse poetic meter called fornyrðislag, which is very similar to (or possibly the same as?) Old English heroic poetry. Eadyth would have recognized the pattern and sounds as being familiar.
Mē līcaþ þīn sċopcræft (I like your poetry): Cool linguistic sidenote—the English word “like” used to work like the Spanish “gustar” does, meaning “to please”, and could take the same word order. “Me liketh”, like “me gusta”, showed that something is pleasing to the speaker. It retained this usage even up to the time of the King James Bible; c.f. Deuteronomy 23:16 “He shall dwell with thee, even among you, in that place which he shall choose in one of thy gates, where it liketh him best: thou shalt not oppress him.”
Chapter 13 notes:
Gunnhild’s song:
Seal, seal, swim to me
And bring me pearls from the sea
I shall put them on a string
And give them to my baby-o.
My idea for this song came from nickernuts, sometimes called sea pearls. They are seeds from a plant that grows in the Caribbean, but they can be washed across the ocean and show up on European beaches, and are documented as being used in medieval and even Roman times.
“Those who honor guests are honored by the gods.”: This is not a direct quote from any Old Norse source, but the sentiment is consistent with the culture.
Freyja vigi: In runes, it would read ᚠᚱᛅᚢᛁᛅ:ᚢᛁᚴᛁ. The inspiration came from the Westeremden yew-stick and from the phrase Þórr vígi, “May Thor bless”, found on the Velanda Runestone.
Brightgift/Beorhtġifu: I originally came up with the name as a plausible combination of two popular Anglo-Saxon name elements, as found in names such as “Beorhtric” and “Ælfgifu”. However, Women's Names in Old English by Elizabeth Okasha does include Beorhtġifu as a real name attested to in documents. Gunnhild would have recognized the similarity to the Old Norse words bjart and gjǫf.
Eadyth’s poem:
Tƿā sealt ġesƿeostor sæholm faraþ!
Blisse becymeþ! Balda dohtra,
Frome frēondas, flēogaþ þēoƿdōme,
Ofer merum mittaþ eallƿundor!
Two salt sisters travel the sea!
Joy arrives! Brave daughters,
Brilliant friends, flee slavery
(And) find wonders over the seas!
Chapter 14 notes:
Old English and Old Frisian mutual intelligibility: It is difficult to be certain about this because of limited written sources for Old Frisian before about 1200 AD. However, relying on Rolf H. Bremmer’s Introduction to Old Frisian, I put together these sentences in Old Frisian: “Hwā send jī?” and “Nee, this is Frēsland. Fon hwēr kommeth jī?” Simply comparing these to the equivalents in Old English, which would be “Hƿā sind ġē?” and "Nay, þis is Frēslond. Fram hwǣr cumaþ ġē?”, shows how similar the languages were.
Eddie Izzard finds it slightly more difficult a thousand years after, but gets full marks for effort.
Dorestad: Not the same as the modern German city of Dorstadt. The Frankish trading town of Dorestad was located in modern-day Utrecht in the Netherlands.
Chapter 15 notes:
Arnwald the Smith: Here is a great video on blacksmithing in Early Medieval Europe. The coins in question would have looked like this (you can see “Dorestad” written on the back). This is one denier or penny.
Forty solidi: A solidus as used by the Carolingian Franks was actually just a unit of account, equivalent to 12 silver pennies. For reference, 40 solidi is slightly more than the fine for breaking someone's bone or cutting off his ear, in the contemporary Lex Frisionum. 100 shillings (the English equivalent) is the weregild for a freeman's life in English law around the same time. See more here.
Chapter 17 notes:
The Magnificat: This hymn would have been appropriate for the hour of Vespers, but I worry that my melody is slightly late for this setting. I copied the Gregorian melody, though Gregorian chant developed later than the date of this story, evolving out of the Old Roman chant in use in Rome around 750. However, I don’t know that an English monk at the time would be using Old Roman chant, either. Although plainchant was brought to England in the 600s and the Venerable Bede mentions that James the Deacon taught monks how to chant “in the Roman style”, that doesn’t mean it was the same as what got written down in Rome in 750. I can’t find whether any liturgical music was preserved from Anglo-Saxon practice before later Carolingian influence.
Here is the Magnificat in Gregorian plainchant.
“No man lives a day beyond what fate has decided.”: See this video, particularly starting at 13:33, for commentary.
Chapter 18 notes:
Eadwald of East Anglia: Eadwald is historical, though not much is known except he was deposed by Coenwulf. His nephew Eadmund is invented, as is Almaer.
Cynewulf and Cyneheard: The story from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 755 says that King Cynewulf wanted to exile Prince Cyneheard, who was son of the King that Cynewulf had previously deposed. Prince Cyneheard found out and took a band of men to attack King Cyneheard. They surprised the king and killed him, but then the king’s attendants found out and came to fight. Prince Cyneheard offered them their lives and riches to give up the fight and join him, but they refused, and fought to the last man. Then King Cynewulf’s thegns heard about this, and took many warriors to fight Prince Cyneheard. Cyneheard tried to buy them off, too, but it didn’t work, and they killed Cyneheard and all of his men but one.
Ġypeswic: Modern day Ipswich. It was pronounced something like “Ippeswich”.
“The way of a fool is right in his own eyes, but a wise man listens to advice.” Proverbs 12:15. In Latin, Wilfrith would have said, “Via stulti recta in oculis ejus; qui autem sapiens est audit consilia.”
Eadmund’s song:
When Beowulf with Breca swam
Ax and spear, ax and spear!
When Beowulf with Breca swam
God, guide my arm!
When Beowulf with Breca swam, the prince of Geats glory won
Ax and spear, ax and spear! Flesh, blood and bone!
When Atla fled from Orléans
Ax and spear, ax and spear!
When Atla fled from Orléans
God, guide my arm!
When Atla fled from Orléans, Theodoric was trampled down
Ax and spear, ax and spear! Flesh, blood and bone!
This is original. No song in this style survives, but then, no song lyrics survive at all from this period, unless we assume poetry in the traditional form was sung. I made use of the alliteration you might except to see. I think it's plausible that songs with refrains or call-and-response would exist in Anglo-Saxon times. I also think it very likely that songs would involve Germanic folk heroes such as Beowulf and Theodoric. Theodoric I was king of the Visigoths and died fighting Attila the Hun (Atla) in 451 AD.
For an interesting exploration of some of the theme of this chapter, check out Kevin Stroud’s History of English Podcast chapter 37: Seafarers, Poets and Traveling Minstrels.
Chapter 19 notes:
Music credit: “Introit - Resurrexi et Adhuc Tecum Sum by The Tudor Consort / GR 1979”, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons. Creative Commons license; the sound file was edited.
Streoneshalh: modern-day Whitby.
Eoferwic: modern-day York.
Chapter 20 notes:
Boya’s riddle:
Two sails have I, smooth and white
A great mast gracefully reaches
Often in pairs, partnered I sail
My song is sweet, sensing death.
This riddle is original, but poetic riddles seemed to be popular among the Anglo-Saxons. See here for the riddles found in the Exeter Book.
Hanna Marti has set many Old English riddles to music. Old English Riddle Songs | Week 2
Chapter 21 notes:
Hagustaldesham: modern-day Hexham
Lundenwic: modern-day London
The stone church: The Church of St. Andrew, on what was at the time the spit of land called Cornu Vallis.
Glass: from A. H. Gray: “Glass window panes would have been extremely expensive and most churches would have left the opening bare or else covered with thin skins or cloth. There are only a few examples in the chronicles of glass being used in churches, such as at York Minster during the height of Northumbrian superiority and wealth in the 8th century.”
Chapter 22 notes:
It is hard to know how trade worked during the early middle ages, and it certainly varied by time and place. Much may have been directed by kings and nobles, but this excerpt from Ælfric's Colloquy (late 900s) shows the role of small-time entrepreneurs:
Master: What have you to say, Merchant?
Merchant: I maintain that I am useful to the King, and to the nobles, and to the wealthy, and to the whole people.
Master: How so?
Merchant: I go on board ship, with my merchandise. I sail to regions beyond the sea, and sell my goods, and buy valuable produce that is not made in this country, and I bring it you here. I face great dangers in crossing the ocean and sometimes I suffer shipwreck, with the loss of all my goods, hardly escaping with my life.
Master: What kinds of things do you bring us?
Merchant: Purple and silk, precious stones and gold, various sorts of clothing, pigments, wine and oil, ivory, copper, brass and tin, sulphur and glass, and the like.
Master: Are you willing to sell your things just as you bought them there?
Merchant: By no means. If I did so, what good would my labour be to me? I wish to sell dearer here than I bought there, that I may gain some profit, to keep myself, and my wife and son.
Chapter 23 notes:
Gold coins: The gold coin in England at this time was the mancus, worth 30 pennies each. No one is sure how common they were, but King Offa was supposed to send 365 mancuses to Rome each year, so a nobleman would easily have 10 on hand. One mancus was 4.25 grams, or about $250 at today's gold prices.
Eidyn: modern-day Edinburgh
Hamwic: modern-day Southampton
Chapter 24 notes:
“Wulf and Eadwacer”: Many thanks to Brian Kay for permission to use part of his musical arrangement of this poem. “Wulf and Eadwacer” is found in the Exeter Book and dates to the late 900s. The poem is difficult to interpret, but seems to be a lament by a woman for a person who is gone, possibly a lover or family member. The speaker says that “Wulf is on one island I on another.” In one stanza, the speaker says:
I followed my Wulf’s tracks in hope,
In the rainy weather I sat sobbing.
When he, battle-brave, put his arms around me
I found joy but also misery.
Wulf, my Wulf!
My longing for you has made me sick
Your seldom visits, not lack of food.
There are many possible translations. Here is one by Roy Liuzza.
Horse’s head: There is no evidence for this tradition in particular, but "hooded animal" traditions abound throughout the British Isles. Cf. the Padstow Hobby Horse, the Welsh tradition of Mari Lwyd, etc.